Q. "The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) institutionalised a hierarchy rather than dismantling it". Critically examine the...

Q. "The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) institutionalised a hierarchy rather than dismantling it". Critically examine the achievements and limitations of NPT.

Question

Q. "The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) institutionalised a hierarchy rather than dismantling it". Critically examine the achievements and limitations of NPT. (15 marks 250 Words)

Model Answer

Q. "The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) institutionalised a hierarchy rather than dismantling it". Critically examine the achievements and limitations of NPT. (15 marks 250 Words)

Paper

GS II

Subject

International Relations

Syllabus as Per Notification

Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s Interests.

Topic

Nuclear Disarmament

Approach:

Introduction

Introduce by stating that even though NPT is one of the most widely adhered-to arms control treaties, but itcreated distinction between “nuclear haves” and “have-nots.”

Body

How the NPT Institutionalised Nuclear Hierarchy

Legalisation of Nuclear Privilege via Article IX and Asymmetric Obligations between NWS and NNWS

Achievements of the NPT

Prevention of Widespread Proliferation, Establishment of a Robust Verification Architecture, Development of a Global Non-Proliferation Norm and Facilitated Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy

Limitations of NPT

Failure promise on Disarmament, Legitimacy Crisis, Institutional Weakness and a Lack of Enforcement, Selective Application and Inability to Prevent Nuclearisation Outside the Treaty and Crisis of Consensus

Suggest way forward briefly for above limitations.

Conclusion

Conclude by highlighting that future of NPT will depend upon restoring confidence in its original grand bargain and moving towards a universal, non-discriminatory framework for nuclear disarmament

Context

The present impasse over Iran’s nuclear future lays bare the enduring hypocrisy at the heart of the global non-proliferation order.

Introduction

The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), signed in 1968 and entering into force in 1970, remains the foundation for global nuclear order. It has 191 State Parties, making it one of the most widely adhered-to arms control treaties. However, by recognizing only the five states that tested nuclear weapons before 1 January 1967 as legitimate Nuclear Weapon States (NWS), the treaty created distinction between “nuclear haves” and “have-nots.”

Body

How the NPT Institutionalised Nuclear Hierarchy

Legalisation of Nuclear Privilege via Article IX

Article IX of NPT grants permanent recognition to the five states that had tested nuclear weapons before 1 January 1967, while prohibiting all others from acquiring such capabilities, thereby creating legal "nuclear club".

This led to India characterize the NPT as "nuclear apartheid," as it imposes permanent differential rights and obligations.

Asymmetric Obligations between NWS and NNWS

Non-Nuclear Weapon States (NNWS) must renounce nuclear weapons and accept Comprehensive Safeguards Agreements (CSA) and IAEA inspections.

In contrast, Article VI merely obliges NWS to "pursue negotiations in good faith" without any timelines or enforcement mechanisms, creating asymmetry.

Achievements of the NPT

Prevention of Widespread Proliferation

NPT has significantly restrained horizontal proliferation and established a strong global norm against nuclear acquisition.

In the 1960s, experts predicted the emergence of 20-30 nuclear-weapon states. Today, only nine possess them.

Establishment of a Robust Verification Architecture

NPT significantly strengthened the IAEA's role as the global nuclear watchdog through safeguards and inspections to ensure that NNWS do not divert nuclear materials for weapons purposes.

The Additional Protocol further expanded the IAEA's authority to inspect undeclared sites, helping uncover clandestine nuclear activities in Iraq, Libya and Iran.

Development of a Global Non-Proliferation Norm

NPT provided foundation for Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), Regional Nuclear Weapon Free Zones and export control regimes such as Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).

Even states outside the treaty, such as India, often seek international legitimacy by demonstrating responsible nuclear behaviour, reflecting the influence of the NPT regime.

Facilitated Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy

NPT facilitated international cooperation in areas such as nuclear medicine, cancer treatment, agriculture, food preservation and clean energy generation.

Recent IAEA initiatives like Atoms4Food and Atoms4NetZero highlights the developmental role of nuclear technology in addressing food security and climate change challenges.

Limitations of NPT

Failure promise on Disarmament

Despite over five decades of the treaty, nearly 12,000 nuclear warheads remain globally, with major powers continuing to modernise their arsenals.

Renewed importance of nuclear deterrence amid Russia-Ukraine conflict and West Asia Crisis eroded the treaty original "grand bargain", between non-proliferation and disarmament.

Legitimacy Crisis

NPT is facing Legitimacy crisis due to the growing perception that the treaty imposes permanent obligations on NNWS, while allowing NWS to indefinitely postpone meaningful disarmament.

This led to erosion of trust in the treaty and increased support for alternative initiatives such as Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW).

Institutional Weakness and a Lack of Enforcement

NPT lacks a permanent secretariat and effective enforcement mechanisms, compliance largely depends on UNSC, where the NWS possess veto power, creating perceptions of selective enforcement and conflicts of interest.

Selective Application and Inability to Prevent Nuclearisation Outside the Treaty

India and Pakistan developed nuclear weapons in bilateral context, Israel continues its policy of strategic ambiguity and North Korea withdrew from the NPT and subsequently became a nuclear power with limited institutional consequences.

At the same time, states within the NPT framework, such as Iran under the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), have been subjected to extensive scrutiny and intrusive inspections.

Crisis of Consensus

Failure of review conferences 2015, 2022 and 2026 to adopt consensus due to disagreements over disarmament, Middle East Nuclear Weapon Free Zone and nuclear modernisation.

Way Forward

Strengthening Article VI of NPT by ensuring NWS states adopting time-Bound, verifiable and irreversible Disarmament Commitments, including further reductions in strategic arsenals.

Reforming NPT Review Process and Compliance Mechanisms to effectively address treaty withdrawal and persistent non-compliance.

Restoring NPT "Grand bargain" by ensuring balanced implementation of all three pillars and giving greater voice to Non-Nuclear Weapon States in decision-making processes.

Adapting NPT to Emerging Nuclear Challenges such as cyber threats to nuclear systems, AI-enabled military technologies, hypersonic weapons and the security of civilian nuclear facilities during conflicts.

Conclusion

NPT has undoubtedly succeeded in preventing widespread nuclear proliferation. However, its inability to achieve meaningful disarmament led to legitimacy crisis. As highlighted during 2026 NPT Review Conference, the treaty today confronts one of its most difficult geopolitical environments since the Cold War. Therefore, future of NPT will depend upon restoring confidence in its original grand bargain and moving towards a universal, non-discriminatory and verifiable framework for nuclear disarmament.